Pseudo Halo vs. Koilocytosis
Pseudo Halo - Inflammatory edema within cell, becomes clear when processed.
Koilocytosis - Asymmetric empty space on electron microscopy.
Elastosis
- breakdown of elastic tissue (as the loss of elasticity in the skin of elderly people that results from degeneration of connective tissue)
- grey patch
If peritonitis in women, differentials are
- ovulation, salpingitis
- appendicitis
- lymphoid hyperplasia
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Thyroidization(colloid) in advanced renal insufficiency
Proximal tube more plump and large than distal tube.
Malakoplakia is an inflammatory condition presenting as a plaque or a nodule that usually affects the genitourinary tract but may rarely involve the skin.
Microscopically, malakoplakia is characterized by the presence of foamy histiocytes with distinctive basophilic inclusions, which are known as Michaelis-Gutmann bodies.
Pathophysiology: Malakoplakia is believed to result from the inadequate killing of bacteria by macrophages or monocytes that exhibit defective phagolysosomal activity. Partially digested bacteria accumulate in monocytes or macrophages and lead to the deposition of calcium and iron on residual bacterial glycolipid. The presence of the resulting basophilic inclusion structure, the Michaelis-Gutmann body, is considered pathognomonic for malakoplakia.
Studies have suggested that a decreased intracellular cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) level may interfere with adequate microtubular function and lysosomal activity, leading to an incomplete elimination of bacteria from macrophages and monocytes.
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Compartment syndrome is an acute medical problem following injury or surgery in which increased pressure (usually caused by inflammation) within a confined space (fascial compartment) in the body impairs blood supply, leading to nerve damage and muscle death without prompt treatment.
Pathophysiology
Any condition that results in an increase in compartment contents or reduction in a compartment’s volume could lead to the development of an acute compartment syndrome. When pressure is elevated capillary blood flow is compromised. Edema of the soft tissue within the compartment further raises the intra-compartment pressure, which compromised venous and lymphatic drainage of the injured area. Pressure, if further increased in a reinforcing vicious cycle, can compromise arteriole perfusion, leading to further tissue ischemia.
Tissue pressure is normally below 10 mm Hg and is usually approximately zero. Blood flow through capillaries is at risk at pressures above 20 mm Hg and nerves and muscles may undergo necrosis at pressures greater than 30 – 40 mm Hg [1]. Arteries and arterioles are stable at these pressures, however the tissues within the compartment dependent on the capillaries for nutrients suffer hypoxia.
Untreated compartment syndrome mediated ischemia of the muscles and nerves lead to eventual irreversible damage and death of the tissues within the compartment.
Symptoms and signs
The 5 "P's" -- Pallor, paresthesias, pulse deficit, paralysis, and pain on passive extension of the compartment-- are useful in recognition in the latter stages of compartment syndrome. Pain is often reported early and almost universally. The description is usually of deep, constant, and poorly localized and is sometimes described as out of proportion with the injury. The pain is aggravated by stretching the muscle group within the compartment. Paresthesia (alterated sensation e.g "pins & needles") in the cutaneous nerves of the affected compartment is another typical sign. A lack of pulse in areas distal to the compartment as well as paralysis of the limb are usually late findings. The compartment may feel very tense as well.
Any condition that results in an increase in compartment contents or reduction in a compartment’s volume could lead to the development of an acute compartment syndrome. When pressure is elevated capillary blood flow is compromised. Edema of the soft tissue within the compartment further raises the intra-compartment pressure, which compromised venous and lymphatic drainage of the injured area. Pressure, if further increased in a reinforcing vicious cycle, can compromise arteriole perfusion, leading to further tissue ischemia.
Tissue pressure is normally below 10 mm Hg and is usually approximately zero. Blood flow through capillaries is at risk at pressures above 20 mm Hg and nerves and muscles may undergo necrosis at pressures greater than 30 – 40 mm Hg [1]. Arteries and arterioles are stable at these pressures, however the tissues within the compartment dependent on the capillaries for nutrients suffer hypoxia.
Untreated compartment syndrome mediated ischemia of the muscles and nerves lead to eventual irreversible damage and death of the tissues within the compartment.
Symptoms and signs
The 5 "P's" -- Pallor, paresthesias, pulse deficit, paralysis, and pain on passive extension of the compartment-- are useful in recognition in the latter stages of compartment syndrome. Pain is often reported early and almost universally. The description is usually of deep, constant, and poorly localized and is sometimes described as out of proportion with the injury. The pain is aggravated by stretching the muscle group within the compartment. Paresthesia (alterated sensation e.g "pins & needles") in the cutaneous nerves of the affected compartment is another typical sign. A lack of pulse in areas distal to the compartment as well as paralysis of the limb are usually late findings. The compartment may feel very tense as well.
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A ganglion cyst (also known as a bible bump) is a swelling that often appears on or around joints and tendons in the hand (or sometimes feet). The size of the cyst can vary over time, often becoming more inflamed if irritated. It is most frequently located around the wrist and on the fingers.
The exact cause of the formation of ganglion cysts is still unknown but they are thought to be due to a degeneration of the fibrous tissue surrounding joints leading to a cystic structure. 1,2 They are often found around joints, especially the wrist joint (the location of 90% of ganglions. 2) They are not due to pockets of the synovium protruding from the joint capsule, a common misconception. They occur most often in the 20–60 age group and are three times more common in females. 1 They are benign but need to be differentiated from more serious conditions. They contain clear fluid similar to synovial fluid (a clear, lubricating, viscous fluid found in the synovial cavity of joints).
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Breast Calcification types:
1. calcium phosphate
2. calcium oxalate(not readily visible)
Radial Scar
- epithelial proliferation that extends in a spoked wheel pattern from a central firotic area.
- earliest stage is a central area that is cellular with minimal collagen.
- at the edges of a radial scar, there are often normal sized to widely dilated ductules.
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stromal ball (endometrium) results from degenerative changes of the stroma
